causes of rural urban migration essay

Rural-Urban Migration, Its Causes and Effects Essay

Introduction.

The movement of people from rural areas to urban areas has been a concern focused on by many studies. According to the United Nations report, almost 50% of the total world population lives in urban areas, and the figure is expected to increase by 10% by the year 2030. This is an indication of the massive movement of people from rural areas to big cities. Rural to urban migration is higher in developing countries as compared to the developed nations. In Nigeria, a developing country, the population in cities is projected to rise from 1.9 billion to 3.9 billion between 2009 and 2030 (Ajaero & Onokala, 2013). This paper explains the causes and the impacts of migration of population from rural areas to large cities. Although the reasons for rural-urban migration vary from one country to another, the causes and effects are similar.

The factors responsible for the movement of people from rural areas to large cities are characterized by either a push or a pull. People are mostly pulled to the areas with positive characteristics and pushed from those with undesirable conditions. Rural to urban migration usually occurs as people look for perceived or actual opportunities that are missing in rural settings but present in large cities. Additionally, the migration takes place as people living in rural areas escape the hostile or unfavorable living conditions. Most urban centers have the majority of wealth, economic activities, and different services as compared to rural areas (Okhankhuele & Opafunso, 2013). On the other hand, rural areas have continuously experienced neglect and degraded environment. Most of the government policies favor the development of urban areas by deliberately and constantly creating more employment and academic opportunities, healthcare facilities, transport systems, among other infrastructural amenities in the urban areas than rural parts (Ali, Shafi, Rehman, & Jadoon, 2015). As a result, the imbalance of quality of life and development between the two areas occurs, consequently increasing the rural to urban migration.

People may decide to migrate from rural to urban areas due to disrupted economy, for instance, as a result of natural disasters like floods, drought, earthquakes, soil infertility, and misfortunes such as war family/community disputes among others. According to Isaac and Raqib (2013), most of the rural-urban migration in Ghana is due to the search for employment opportunities, which are normally concentrated in the major cities. Most of the Ghanians attribute such as migration to economic purposes. The migrants, most of whom are men, are frustrated by the limited resources for livelihood in rural areas, and the scarcity compels them to look for greener pastures in large cities so that they can get enough to take care of their families. Other migrants cite harsh environmental factors as reasons for their movement from rural areas to cities. Farming, the major economic activity in most rural areas, is adversely affected by the harsh environmental conditions such as infertile soil and inadequate rain for farming. Besides, farming faces other challenges such as limited lands, high fertilizer costs, and low crop prices. All such factors negatively affect agricultural production and profitability. As a result, the youth have continued to lose interest in farming and perceive the agricultural lifestyle as a low-status career. Therefore, they move to large cities to look for seemingly more promising jobs.

Rural to urban migration affects the conditions of the rural areas as well as those in large cities where the migrants settle after moving from their original homes. First, the population of the countryside reduces significantly, and as a result, the agricultural production and development in the regions are adversely affected (Bimerew, 2015). As the youthful move to cities to look for better livelihood, the fascinating social life in the rural areas is replaced by a gloomy condition. The youthful people have energy and vitality, and their movement leaves behind weak, aging parents and young children to carry out farming activities. As a result, the agricultural output reduces, consequently leading to decreased country’s gross domestic product as well as minimal rural income, development funds, and standard of living (Jahan, 2012).

The rural development stagnates, and the areas lack vital social amenities. For instance, the Nigerian rural areas do not have social facilities like proper roads for motor vehicle transport, industries, pipe-borne water, and electricity, as well as well-paying jobs due to increased movement of people to cities. These inadequacies have seen the Nigerian rural areas undergo a vicious poverty cycle. The majority of the educated and strong people desert rural areas, leaving behind the illiterate population in the countryside who are unable to fight poverty effectively. As a result, the standards of living in rural and large cities differ significantly, the latter being better places to live in.

The movement of people from rural regions to major cities has various consequences on the basic facilities in urban areas. Cities become overcrowded, congested, and experience high food costs, a strain on social services, as well as aggravating air and water-borne diseases. The unplanned expansion of cities also leads to the inadequate supply of social amenities such as housing, transport infrastructures, electricity, and water, as well as sewerage system issues (Isaac & Raqib, 2013). The increase in the squatter settlement in cities is perhaps the most remarkable impact of rural-urban migration. The huge increase in city population as a result of the movement has made it difficult for the urban authorities to keep records of the details of the people living in the areas properly.

Attributable to the absence of proper records, the control of some criminal activities such as robbery, theft, murder, among others, becomes a complicated affair in some of the large cities (Okhankhuele & Opafunso, 2013). Besides, the farmers surrounding the expanding cities are displaced as a result of the unplanned growth of the urban areas. Consequently, the agricultural production continues to decline and the displaced people may resort to relocating to urban areas, where job opportunities are already limited, in search of better livelihood. The majority of the people who move from urban to rural areas get jobs in informal sectors, which eventually become congested, resulting in reduced productivity and minimal opportunities for eradicating poverty. Most of the new workers in the cities tend to start up their businesses for employment, and this has made self-employment in urban areas account for 71%, 63%, 61%, and 59% of the entire informal employment in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, Latin America, and Asia respectively.

Although the migration of people is a global phenomenon, more rural populations in the developing countries move to cities as compared to the developed nations. The migration is triggered by factors that push these people away from rural areas or opportunities and amenities in the urban regions that are not present in the countryside. Although this shift of population leads to increased self-employment in the cities, other negative impacts such as congestion, increased unemployment levels, poor drainage systems, and crime among others are caused by the scenario in urban areas. Additionally, rural areas experience low agricultural output, stagnated development, and a huge aging/weak population.

Ajaero, C. K., & Onokala, P. C. (2013). The effects of rural-urban migration on rural communities of southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Population Research , 2 (13) , 1-11.

Ali, H., Shafi, M., Rehman, M., & Jadoon, M. (2015). Causes and effects of rural-urban migration in rural areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 6 (5), 1-6.

Bimerew, H. (2015). Rural-urban migration and its consequence on urban living: The case in Hawassa city Southern Ethiopia. Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research , 15 (4), 60-75.

Isaac, A., & Raqib, A. S. (2013). Rural-urban migration and rural community development: A case of Kpongu community of Upper West Region of Ghana. African Journal of History and Culture , 5 (4), 72.

Jahan, M. (2012). Impact of rural urban migration on physical and social environment: The case of Dhaka city. International Journal of Development and Sustainability , 1 (2), 186-194.

Okhankhuele, O. T., & Opafunso, O. Z. (2013). Causes and consequences of rural-urban migration Nigeria: A Case study of Ogun Waterside local government area of Ogun State, Nigeria. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 16 (1), 185-194.

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Rural-Urban Migration: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions

Migration has been critical to economic progress, education, and mobility. This global phenomenon has been reshaping cultures for ages. While migration has affected urban growth and development, it also brings challenges to both rural and urban areas. Rural-to-urban migration refers to people moving from rural to urban areas in quest of better opportunities, higher living standards, and access to critical services. The gap between rural and urban communities has grown in several countries around the world in recent years. Young people seeking opportunity and change are moving from their rural areas to the big cities, where the promise of expanded professional options, greater financial independence, and a new lifestyle typically outweigh the disadvantages. The surge in population often leads to urban overcrowding, exerting immense pressure on existing infrastructure, housing markets, transportation networks, and public services. Consequently, issues concerning sanitation, waste management, and traffic congestion emerge as pressing challenges, demanding innovative solutions for sustainable urban development .

What are the causes?

Economic disparities.

One of the primary drivers of rural-urban migration is the significant economic disparity between rural and urban areas. Many rural regions lack access to viable job opportunities, adequate income, and basic services, prompting individuals to seek better prospects in urban centers where industries, businesses, and services are concentrated.

Lack of Educational and Healthcare Facilities

Rural areas often suffer from limited educational and healthcare infrastructure. As a result, young individuals and families may migrate to urban areas in search of quality education and better healthcare facilities for themselves and their children.

Agricultural Transformations

The mechanisation and modernisation of agriculture have led to the consolidation of landholdings, reducing the need for manual labor. This shift can result in rural unemployment and subsequently drive people to cities, where alternative employment opportunities are available.

Natural Disasters and Climate Change

Rural regions are more vulnerable to the impacts of natural disasters and climate change, affecting agricultural productivity and livelihoods. When faced with environmental challenges, some individuals opt to move to urban areas as a means of escaping hardship and seeking better living conditions. For instance, the 2022 monsoon floods have displaced 33 million people and killed more than 1000 people in the country (skynews, 2022).

Consequences of Rural to Urban Migration

Urban overcrowding.

Pakistan’s urbanisation rate is increasing, with 37.44% of the people living in major cities (Trading Economics, 2021). 40% of Pakistan’s urban population lives in slums due to a lack of means to afford housing  (Anwar, Hasan, & Saqib, 2021).  As rural migrants flock to urban centers, cities often experience population surges that lead to overcrowding. This puts immense strain on existing infrastructure, housing, transportation networks, and public services, resulting in challenges related to sanitation, waste management, and traffic congestion.

Housing Challenges

The influx of rural migrants in search of better opportunities drives up the demand for housing in urban areas. As a result, property prices escalate, and affordable housing becomes scarce, leaving many low-income families and migrants vulnerable to living in informal settlements and slums. There is an 8.5 million unit backlog of housing in Pakistan which is accelerating to 200,000 units per year (Hasan & Arif, 2018).

The Strain on Urban Services

The sudden surge in urban population due to migration places a heavy burden on essential services such as healthcare, education, and water supply. Pakistan is one of the top countries with poor access to clean water. Due to the lack of toilets, the use of dirty water, and poor hygiene, 289,000 children under the age of five die each year (Kunbhar, 2018). Inadequate provision of these services can negatively impact the quality of life for both migrants and long-term urban residents. For example, the average price of a property in Lahore in 2020 was US $73 per square foot, up 6.25% from 2019 (Mehmood, 2020).

Cultural and Social Changes

Migration can lead to cultural shifts and social changes in both rural and urban communities . Migrants often bring their cultural practices and traditions to the cities, contributing to the diversity of urban life. However, this can also lead to tensions and challenges as different cultural groups interact and integrate.

Rural Decline

As people leave rural areas, the communities they leave behind may experience a decline in population and economic activity. This can have negative consequences for rural economies, agriculture, and overall community dynamics.

Skills Drain

The migration of skilled and educated individuals from rural areas to cities can result in a “brain drain” effect. The loss of skilled workers can hamper rural development and limit the potential for growth in rural regions.

Remittances and Economic Impact

On the positive side, remittances sent back to rural areas by migrant workers can provide a significant source of income and contribute to local economic development. However, overdependence on remittances can also create vulnerabilities if the urban economy experiences fluctuations.

Environmental Impact

Urbanisation and the concentration of people in cities can lead to increased pollution and resource consumption, impacting the environment. Additionally, the expansion of urban areas can encroach upon nearby agricultural lands and natural habitats. 

Family and Social Dynamics

Migration can have complex effects on family and social dynamics. While it may improve the economic situation for migrants and their families, it can also lead to social disconnection and challenges in maintaining traditional family structures and support systems.

Urban Poverty and Inequality

Rural-urban migration can contribute to urban poverty and income inequality. While some migrants may find success in urban areas, others may struggle to secure stable employment and adequate living conditions, leading to pockets of poverty and disparity within cities.

What are the Solutions?

Rural development and diversification.

Investing in rural development is crucial to provide attractive opportunities within rural areas. Diversifying local economies, promoting entrepreneurship, and supporting agriculture can create sustainable livelihoods, reducing the need for migration.

Strengthening Rural Infrastructure and Services

Improving rural infrastructure, including road networks, schools, healthcare centers, and access to clean water, can enhance living conditions and make rural areas more appealing for residents to stay.

Job Creation in Small and Medium-sized Towns

Promoting job creation in small and medium-sized towns can act as a counter-magnet to large cities. Encouraging industries to set up in these areas can help distribute economic opportunities more evenly.

Affordable Housing Initiatives

Governments and organizations can develop affordable housing projects to accommodate urban migrants and alleviate the housing crisis. These initiatives should focus on providing safe and decent housing options for low-income families.

Urban Planning and Management

Implementing effective urban planning and management strategies can help cities accommodate the growing population and optimize the use of resources. This includes sustainable land-use planning, improved public transportation, and waste management systems.

Skills Training and Education

Providing skill development and vocational training programs in rural areas can equip individuals with the necessary skills to find employment locally, reducing the need to migrate for work.

Social Support Networks

Establishing social support networks for migrants in urban areas can facilitate their integration into new communities. These networks can provide access to information, resources, and emotional support to help migrants adapt to urban life.

Rural-urban migration is a complex issue with far-reaching implications for both rural and urban regions. While migration can provide individuals with new opportunities and improved living standards, it also poses significant challenges to urban centers, such as overcrowding and strained resources. Addressing rural-urban migration requires a multi-faceted approach, involving investments in rural development and effective urban planning. By finding a balance between promoting sustainable rural development and managing urban growth, societies can work towards creating more equitable and prosperous communities for all.

This article is written by Haneen Gul. Haneen is a research analyst at the Iqbal Institute of Policy Studies (IIPS).

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Rural-urban Migration: Meaning, Causes and Effects

• Post author: Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka ACMC
• Post published: September 9, 2021
• Post category: Scholarly Articles

Rural-urban Migration: effects and causes: The term “ migration ” is by no means a new concept. It has been practised from historic times in various parts of the globe and for various reasons. It forms a major part of human history and how many new grounds were found, colonised or taken over. The word “ migrate ” is derived from the Latin word “ migratus ” meaning to “ change or transport”.

A simply definition of human migration will be the movement or change from one geographical area to another usually across a border. It involves both movement from a previous place where one lived (emigration) and moving into and residing in a new area (immigration).

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Table of Contents

Types of Migration

There are various types of migration, some of which are :

a. Internal migration: migration within a recognised border. It could be within a state or country. This includes movement between zones or provinces located in the same country.

b. External migration : this implies movement across an internationally recognised border. This entails moving from one country to the other or one continent to another.

c. Rural-Urban migration : movement of people from a rural settlement to an urban area.

d. Urban-rural migration : movement of people from urban areas to rural areas.

e. Urban-Urban migration : movement of people from one urban area to another

f. Rural-rural migrations : this happens when inhabitants of a rural locality move to a more favourable rural area to live and work there.

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As earlier stated, rural-urban migration is the movement of people from rural dwellings to urban cities. It would be best, at this point, to distinguish properly between rural and urban areas. Rural areas, which some may refer to as “ countryside ”, are characterised by settlements of low population density and fewer infrastructures. Urban areas typically have a large population, a high population density and much social and economic infrastructure and amenities.

They can range from cities to metropolises. Rural-urban migration is a pattern seen in many countries, both developed and developing. However, the rates of such migrant movements differ, with generally higher rates seen in developing nations. Rural-urban migration therefore, is a major part of society and its causative factors as well as resulting effects need close attention.

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Causes of Rural-urban Migration

The details of the various reasons for migration vary. However, most reasons for rural-urban migration can be seen as a result of the interplay of two set of factors: the push factors and the pull factors . These two divisions form a basis of classifying the causes of migration.

The push factors refer to those conditions present in the rural sectors that encourage residents of such areas to leave. This implies that such conditions are unconducive, substandard or potentially dangerous when compared to such conditions seen in the urban settlements. These factors tend to drive people away from the rural settlements. Hence the term, “ push factors ”. They include but are not restricted to the following:

a. Economic push factors : these include poor standard of living, reduced or unavailable social amenities, decrease in availability of job opportunities amongst others. The above factors are more than likely to make residents unable to cope in such environments.

A decreased availability of basic amenities (like water, accommodation and good roads) and standard health care amenities (like hospitals and clinics) will surely lead to low quality of life. Generally, job opportunities in rural areas are scarce and job security is not certain.

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b. Low standard of living : this is a result of the above factors. Put together, lack of good jobs, lack of basic amenities and lack of good educational facilities and personnel will surely result in a low standard of living.

c. Insecurities/ Wars : civil wars, civil unrests and high crime waves make people leave the rural areas for safer grounds. While one may argue that urban settlements are also plagued by this dangers, it is also true that security measures available in urban areas are by far better suited than those in the average rural areas.

d. Natural Disasters : these are occurrences beyond man’s control that endanger lives an properties. Floods, earthquakes, hurricanes and other such disasters, when they happen in rural settlements, will force residents to flee.

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e. Political factors: oppression by rulers or unstable government at the rural community level will reduce occupants’ willingness to remain in such places.

Conversely, the pull factors are those features of the urban settlements that attract potential immigrants from the rural settlement. These men, women and children are assured of a better quality of life based on these factors which include:

f. Economic factors : better standard of living, better job opportunities and quality amenities encourage movement into urban areas. Higher standard of education is a major factor for rural dwellers looking to further their education in better institutes of learning.

g. Political factors :  cities have a defined system of government and selection of rulers. Such political stability is welcomed by those seeking to make such cities their new home.

h. Better security : people will always to prepare to live in a setting with law enforcement agencies and better record of security. This ensures safety of life and property.

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Effects of Rural-urban migration

Rural urban migration has both positive and negative effects

Positive effects

a. Urbanization: with more people moving to the modern cities, there is increase in the available work force which will drive an increase in economic growth. This economic growth will drive the expansion of these cities, creation of more social amenities and health care facilities. Thus, increase in development.

b. Improved standard of living : the immigrants will enjoy a better standard of living in their new home. The will have a safer and more enabling environment.

c. Improved economic output: the economic status both those who migrated into the cities and the cities themselves benefit massively. This will encourage more economic growth and development.

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Negative effects

a. Depletion of the rural economy: while the urban economy is profiting, the rural economy is on the losing end because the working population of these communities are migrating to the city. This will eventually affect the economy of the urban area because in many ways, resources of the urban areas are sourced from rural areas.

b. Increased population density : this is due to continued influx of people to the urban areas. These may lead to overcrowding and all its negative consequences like pollution, and high crime waves.

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Recommendations:

a . Governments and non-government agencies to invest long term in the development of rural settlements. By establishing schools, roads, potable water supply.

b . Limits on populations of large cities should be placed, to avoid overcrowding.

In summary, rural urban migration, like with all other forms of migration, is of great civil, public health and social importance and must be seen as such for improvements to be made.

Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka, ACMC, is a lawyer and a certified mediator/conciliator in Nigeria. He is also a developer with knowledge in various programming languages. Samuel is determined to leverage his skills in technology, SEO, and legal practice to revolutionize the legal profession worldwide by creating web and mobile applications that simplify legal research. Sam is also passionate about educating and providing valuable information to people.

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• Rural to Urban Migration

Chances are, you live in an urban city right now. That's not a wild guess or a mystic insight, it's merely statistics. Today, most people live in cities, but it probably doesn't take much tracing back to past generations to find a time when your family lived in a rural area. Since the onset of the industrial era, migration from rural to urban areas has been taking place across the world. Migration is an important factor influencing population growth and spatial patterns of the population.  

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• Agricultural Geography
• Cultural Geography
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• Introduction to Human Geography
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• Asylum Seekers
• Carrying Capacity
• Causes of Migration
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• Effects of Migration
• Epidemiological Transition
• Fertility, Mortality and Migration
• Forced Migration
• Guest Workers
• Internal Migration
• Internally Displaced Persons
• Malthusian Theory
• Natural Increase
• Physiological Population Density
• Population Composition
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• Ravenstein's Laws of Migration
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Jump to a key chapter

Rural-to-urban migration has shifted the concentration of rural and urban populations, and today, more people live in cities than at any previous time in human history. This change is not merely a matter of numbers; a reorganization of space naturally accompanies such a dramatic transfer of population.

Rural-to-urban migration is an inherently spatial phenomenon, so the field of human geography can help to reveal and analyze the causes and consequences of this change.

Rural-to-Urban Migration Definition Geography

People living in rural areas are more likely to migrate than those living in urban cities. 1 Cities have developed into centers of industry, commerce, education, and entertainment. The allure of city living and the many opportunities that may come with it have long driven people to uproot and settle in the city.

Rural-to-urban migration is when people move, either temporarily or permanently, from a rural area to an urban city.

Rural-to-urban migration occurs at both the national and international level, but internal or national migration takes place at a higher rate. 1 This type of migration is voluntary, meaning that migrants willingly choose to relocate. However, rural-to-urban migration can also be forced in some cases, such as when rural refugees flee to urban areas.

Developing countries characteristically have higher rates of rural-to-urban migration compared to countries with more developed economies. 1 This difference is attributed to developing countries having a larger proportion of the population living in rural areas, where they participate in traditional rural economies like agriculture and natural resource management.

Causes of Rural-to-Urban Migration

While urban cities have been undergoing remarkable transformations through population growth and economic expansion, rural areas have not experienced this same level of development. The discrepancies between rural and urban development are the principal causes of rural-to-urban migration, and they best described through push and pull factors.

A push factor is anything that causes a person to want to leave their current living situation, and a pull factor is anything that attracts a person to move to a different location.

Let's take a look at some important push and pull factors across the environmental, social, and economic reasons that people choose to migrate from rural to urban areas.

Environmental Factors

Rural life is highly integrated with and dependent on the natural environment. Natural disasters are a common factor that pushes rural residents to migrate to urban cities. This includes events that may immediately displace people, such as floods, droughts, wildfires, and intense weather. Forms of e nvironmental degradation operate more slowly, but are still noteworthy push factors. Through processes of desertification, soil loss, pollution, and water scarcity, the profitability of the natural environment and agriculture is reduced. This pushes people to move in pursuit of replacing their economic losses.

Urban cities offer the promise of a less direct dependence on the natural environment. Environmental pull factors include access to more consistent resources like fresh water and food in cities. Vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change impacts is also reduced when moving from a rural to urban area.

Social Factors

Increased access to quality education and health care facilities are a common pull factor in rural-to-urban migration. Rural areas often lack government services when compared to their urban counterparts. More government spending often goes towards providing public services in cities. Urban cities also offer a plethora of recreation and entertainment options not found in rural areas. From shopping malls to museums, the excitement of city life attracts many rural migrants.

Economic Factors

Employment and educational opportunities are cited as the most common pull factors associated with rural-to-urban migration. 1 Poverty, food insecurity , and lack of opportunities in rural areas are a consequence of uneven economic development and push people to urban areas where development has been greater.

It is not uncommon for rural residents to abandon agricultural lifestyles when their land becomes degraded, affected by natural disasters, or otherwise unprofitable. When paired with job loss through the mechanization and commercialization of agriculture, rural unemployment becomes a major push factor.

The Green Revolution occurred in the 1960s and included the mechanization of agriculture and the use of synthetic fertilizers. This coincides with a massive shift to rural-to-urban migration in developing countries. Rural unemployment increased, as less labor was needed in food production.

Advantages of Rural-to-Urban Migration

The most prominent advantages of rural-to-urban migration are the increased educational and employment opportunities provided to migrants. With increased access to government services like health care, higher education, and basic infrastructure, a rural migrant's standard of living can dramatically improve.

From the city level perspective, the availability of labor is increased through rural-to-urban migration. This population growth promotes further economic development and the accumulation of capital within industries.

Disadvantages of Rural-to-Urban Migration

The loss in population experienced by rural areas disrupts the rural labor market and can deepen the rural and urban development divide. This can hinder agricultural productivity in areas where commercial agriculture is not prevalent, and it impacts city residents who rely on rural food production. In addition, once land is sold as migrants leave for the city, it can often be acquired by large corporations for industrial agriculture or intensive natural resource harvesting. Often, this land use intensification can further degrade the environment.

Brain drain is another disadvantage of rural-to-urban migration, as those who could contribute to the development of rural economies choose to remain permanently in the city. This can also result in the loss of family ties and a reduction in rural social cohesion.

Lastly, the promise of urban opportunities is not always kept, as many cities struggle to keep up with their population growth. High rates of unemployment and lack of affordable housing often lead to the formation of squatter settlements on the periphery of megacities. Rural poverty then takes on an urban form, and the standard of living can decrease.

Solutions for Rural-to-Urban Migration

Solutions to rural-to-urban migration center around the revitalization of rural economies. 2 Rural development efforts should be concentrated on incorporating the pull factors of cities into rural areas and reducing the factors that push people to migrate away.

This is achieved through providing increased government services in higher and vocational education, which prevents rural brain drain and fosters economic growth and entrepreneurship. 2 Industrialization can also offer greater employment opportunities. Urban pull factors like entertainment and recreation can be supplemented with the establishment of these infrastructures in rural spaces. In addition, public transportation investments can allow rural residents to more easily travel to and from city centers.

To ensure that the traditional rural economies of agriculture and natural resource management are viable options, governments can work to improve land tenure rights and subsidize food production costs. Increasing loan opportunities for rural residents can support new land buyers and small businesses. In some regions, the development of a rural ecotourism economy can further offer rural employment opportunities in sectors such as hospitality and land stewardship.

Examples of Rural-to-Urban Migration

Rural-to-urban migration rates are consistently higher than urban-to-rural migration rates. However, different social, political, and economic factors contribute to the unique push and pull factors causing this migration.

South Sudan

The urban city of Juba, located along the Nile River in the Republic of South Sudan, has undergone rapid population growth and economic development in recent decades. The surrounding agricultural lands of the city have provided a steady source of rural-to-urban migrants settling in Juba.

A 2017 study found that the primary pull factors from rural-to-urban migrants are the greater education and employment opportunities offered by Juba. 3 The underlying push factors were related to issues of land tenure rights and climate change impacts on agriculture and animal husbandry. The city of Juba has struggled to meet the demands of its growing population, and several squatter settlements have formed as a result.

China's population is thought to have seen the largest rural-to-urban migration flows in history. 4 Since the 1980s, national economic reforms have increased taxes related to food production and increased the scarcity of available farmland. 4 These push factors have driven rural residents to take up temporary or permanent employment in urban centers, where much of their income is returned to family members who do not migrate.

This example of mass rural-to-urban migration has had many consequences on the remaining rural population. Often, children are left to work and live with grandparents, while parents seek employment away in cities. Issues of child neglect and under education have grown as a result. The disruption of family ties is directly caused by partial migration, where only a portion of the family moves to the city. The cascading social and cultural effects demand increased attention to rural revitalization.

Rural-to-Urban Migration - Key takeaways

• Rural-to-urban migration is primarily caused by the allure of greater education and employment opportunities in urban cities.
• Uneven rural and urban development has resulted in cities having greater economic growth and government services, which attracts rural migrants.
• Rural-to-urban migration can have negative consequences on rural economies like agriculture and natural resource management, as the labor force can be drastically reduced.
• Natural disasters and environmental degradation reduce the profitability of rural land and push migrants to urban cities.
• Increasing education and employment opportunities in rural areas are the first steps to revitalizing rural economies and reducing rural-to-urban migration.
• H. Selod, F. Shilpi. Rural-urban migration in developing countries: Lessons from the literature, Regional Science and Urban Economics, Volume 91, 2021, 103713, ISSN 0166-0462, (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2021.103713.)
• Shamshad. (2012). Rural to Urban Migration: Remedies to Control. Golden Research Thoughts. 2. 40-45. (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306111923_Rural_to_Urban_Migration_Remedies_to_Control)
• Lomoro Alfred Babi Moses et al. 2017. Causes and consequences of rural-urban migration: The case of Juba Metropolitan, Republic of South Sudan. IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 81 012130. (doi :10.1088/1755-1315/81/1/012130)
• Zhao, Y. (1999). Leaving the countryside: rural-to-urban migration decisions in China. American Economic Review, 89(2), 281-286.
• Figure 1: Farmer in the Rural Countryside (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Farmer_.1.jpg) by Saiful Khandaker licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)
• Figure 3: Growing City of Juba (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JUBA_VIEW.jpg) by D Chol licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

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Voluntary migration

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Frequently Asked Questions about Rural to Urban Migration

What was the primary cause of rural to urban migration?

The primary cause of rural-to-urban migration is the uneven development between rural and urban areas, resulting in more education and employment opportunities available in urban cities.

What is rural to urban migration in human geography?

Rural-to-urban migration is when people move, either temporarily or permanently, from a rural to an urban area. 

Why is rural-urban migration a problem?

Rural-to-urban migration can be a problem when cities cannot keep up with their population growth. Migration can overwhelm a city’s employment opportunities, ability to provide government services, and supply of affordable housing. 

How can we solve rural-urban migration?

Rural-to-urban migration can be balanced by revitalizing rural economies with more employment opportunities and increasing government services like education and health care. 

What is an example of rural to urban migration?

The population growth in China’s major cities is an example of rural-to-urban migration. Rural residents have been leaving the countryside for the increased opportunities that China’s cities offer, and as a result, the country’s population concentration has been shifting from rural to urban. 

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